If you subscribe to James’ definition of education as “the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior” (p. 15), then measures such as the Implicit Associations Test (IAT) and Malcolm Gladwell’s conceptions of thinking are a measure of how “educated” we are. James (1962) notes “an educated memory depends on an organized system of associations; and its goodness depends on two of their peculiarities: first on the persistency of the associations; and, second, on their number” (p. 60). Memory is the sum of our associations, the store from which we can draw upon when it comes to making quick decisions. This sum of associations is made up of our past experiences, the native reactions and acquired reactions. As humans continue to develop, the possible reactions to given situations are further narrowed down according to previous successful and unsuccessful interactions with the environment. The way in which we connect our ideas and experiences (and the results of those connections) can influence how we will react in future situations. Similarly, how we associate ideas with one another will influence future encounters with people, places and things that we connect with these previous experiences.
I do not know the exact name of the of the tests that I took (I participated in the Research section of the site, so it did not tell me the title of the study before I began), but the first test looked at associations between Anger, Sadness, and the Self, and the second test examined associations between Security, Freedom, Good and Bad. While I am familiar with the IAT and how it is used, this was my first experience taking the test. I was not surprised by my results, but at the same time I wonder if the Implicit Associations Test creates associations with the individual as a result of their participating in the study. For example, in the second task I was asked to associate Freedom and Security with good and bad, first Freedom and good were on one side and security and bad on the other, then the two items switched sides. I found that it was difficult to associate one with the other once they were reversed, and while the research would dictate that I found it difficult because I am primed to associate freedom with good and security with bad, I think that it could be just as likely that I was used to grouping those two words together as part of the task and so ungrouping them was difficult. It would be interesting to see if my results would have been different if I had begun the task with freedom and bad grouped together instead of freedom and good.
The IAT and the selections we read/listened to from Malcolm Gladwell’s book Blink both emphasize the fact that our body of knowledge and experiences that we acquire through our everyday experiences as well as education are what we draw from in making snap judgments. Gladwell (2005) uses this premise to challenge the idea of free will: “[Studies on priming] suggest that what we think of as free will is largely an illusion: much of the time, we are simply operating on automatic pilot, and the way we think and act, and how well we think and act on the spur of the moment – are a lot more susceptible to outside influences than we realize” (p. 58). In considering James’ theories on education and the will, and more specifically his use of free will as a turning point in his own life, this contention by Gladwell highlights one of the larger distinctions between these two readings. To use James’ example, are we truly exercising free will when we get out of bed in the morning, or are we simply making a quick unconscious judgment to get out of bed based upon the sum of our experiences and observations about what happens when we either get out of bed or do not get out of bed when the alarm goes off?
References:
Gladwell, M. (2005). Blink: The power of thinking without thinking. New York: Little, Brown and Company.
James, W. (1962). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals. New York: Dover. (Original work published 1899)
Sunday, October 30, 2011
Video on Behaviorism
This is a brief video on Skinner and Behaviorism that links behaviorism to our superstitious practices. The narrator begins with a review of behaviorism in terms of rewards for behaviors, using the learned behaviors of rats and pigeons as examples. The narrator explains that Skinner also studied the impact of random reward on behavior. The findings indicated that these random rewards tended to reinforce quirky behaviors in animals (e.g., superstitions) that were in no way linked to the reward itself other than the fact that they had been engaged in that behavior at the time the reward was administered. Using the example of the various rituals that people have when bowling, such as leaning in one direction or another, the narrator makes the point that such behaviors are done to influence the ball when in fact the ball is influencing us. I had not really thought about behaviorism in this way before, but I thought that this was a great example of how reinforcements can influence the way that we perceive our actions. In particular, reinforcements can lead us to perceive actions as meaningful, even if they are not particularly influential on our outcomes.
Tuesday, October 25, 2011
The Will
According to James, will could be the reason we get out of bed in the morning. Will can be defined as the intent to act or not act on a given impulse. Inhibition, or not acting, can be influenced in a number of ways. With respect to education, James gives the example of a child who is unable to learn something and therefore wishes to give up on the task. “ So long as the inhibiting sense of impossibility remains in the child’s mind, he will continue unable to get beyond the obstacle. The aim of the teacher should then be to make him simply forget. Drop the subject for the time, divert the mind to something else: then, leading the pupil back by some circuitous line of association, spring it on him again before he has time to recognize it, and as likely as not, he will go over it now without any difficulty” (p. 89).
This method has the teacher explore a different avenue of understanding with the student once they have had time away from the subject. Similar to walking away from a puzzle or any difficult task for a time, we are often able to persist longer and with more success if we take a break from it once we find ourselves getting frustrated. This idea closely aligns with more recent work on willpower done by social psychologist Roy Baumeister. Baumeister’s research indicates that willpower can deplete over time. However, similar to James’ conception of the habit, Baumeister also contends that willpower can be built up in strength and endurance through regular use in a variety of domains (Pinker, 2011). This also has connections to the idea of attention and stream of consciousness. For some students, working at a given task for long hours will not yield successful results. In fact, it may turn them off to a subject altogether. James notes the importance of taking into account individual differences in focus among students. Diverting attention to another topic, or even several topics in quick succession allows the student to immerse themselves in an idea until they hit a wall, then they can switch to another topic and pursue it for a while.
In concluding this talk, James makes the case that teachers should not admonish the student for diverting their attention to other places. Instead, the teacher should use the concept of the will and create a competing interest that will cause the student to inhibit their impulse to direct their attention away from the classroom (p. 94). By encouraging positive experiences with the exercise of will, the teacher is positively reinforcing good behavior, rather than negatively reinforcing bad behavior. This brings up the subject of punishment or admonishment in the classroom. In essence, James is calling for teachers to reinforce model citizen behavior in their students, instead of calling attention to their aberrations from the desired behavior. Is this the best way for students to learn to control their will?
Pinker, S. (2011, September 2). The Sugary Secret of Self-Control. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/04/books/review/willpower-by-roy-f-baumeister-and-john-tierney-book-review.html.
This method has the teacher explore a different avenue of understanding with the student once they have had time away from the subject. Similar to walking away from a puzzle or any difficult task for a time, we are often able to persist longer and with more success if we take a break from it once we find ourselves getting frustrated. This idea closely aligns with more recent work on willpower done by social psychologist Roy Baumeister. Baumeister’s research indicates that willpower can deplete over time. However, similar to James’ conception of the habit, Baumeister also contends that willpower can be built up in strength and endurance through regular use in a variety of domains (Pinker, 2011). This also has connections to the idea of attention and stream of consciousness. For some students, working at a given task for long hours will not yield successful results. In fact, it may turn them off to a subject altogether. James notes the importance of taking into account individual differences in focus among students. Diverting attention to another topic, or even several topics in quick succession allows the student to immerse themselves in an idea until they hit a wall, then they can switch to another topic and pursue it for a while.
In concluding this talk, James makes the case that teachers should not admonish the student for diverting their attention to other places. Instead, the teacher should use the concept of the will and create a competing interest that will cause the student to inhibit their impulse to direct their attention away from the classroom (p. 94). By encouraging positive experiences with the exercise of will, the teacher is positively reinforcing good behavior, rather than negatively reinforcing bad behavior. This brings up the subject of punishment or admonishment in the classroom. In essence, James is calling for teachers to reinforce model citizen behavior in their students, instead of calling attention to their aberrations from the desired behavior. Is this the best way for students to learn to control their will?
Pinker, S. (2011, September 2). The Sugary Secret of Self-Control. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/04/books/review/willpower-by-roy-f-baumeister-and-john-tierney-book-review.html.
Apperception
James defines apperception as “the act of taking a thing into the mind” (p. 77). Essentially, apperception refers to the way in which we categorize and digest information. James’ take on this idea is that students are eager to take information and categorize it using that which they already know. “We hate anything absolutely new, anything without any name, and for which a new name must be forced. So we take the nearest name, even though it be inappropriate” (p. 78). Humans are always desperate to categorize things in a way that is personally meaningful to us; that can be related in some way to that which we already know. Learning new information that cannot be categorized is much more difficult to acquire. Once again, James’ conception of cognition appears to be very similar to Piaget’s ideas of assimilation and accommodation, where new ideas are either assimilated into existing constructs, or the construct is modified in order to accommodate the conflicting information.
The concept of apperception can be linked to James’ previous talk on memory. James likened memory to plowing channels of connections between different ideas. Similarly, apperception seeks to link new ideas with these preexisting channels. James notes that these categorical ruts that we dig ourselves into (what James refers to as old-fogyism) become prevalent as early as age twenty-five (p. 79). This is due in part to the fact that we have built up enough experience with a given thought process that it becomes second nature to retrieve it in this way. This idea can be linked to the ways in which cognition changes over time. While adults typically have slower reaction times than children, they can make up for this speed in areas where they are knowledgeable, because they are so familiar with the pathways used to retrieve that knowledge. Apperception is also similar to stereotyping. While stereotyping is often thought of and discussed in the negative sense (such as gender and race stereotypes), in its broadest sense, stereotyping is simply an expedited manner of categorizing things. The brain places people and ideas into categories, and people become more apt to make snap judgments based upon previous experiences with the same situation.
James makes a rather disturbing point towards the end of his talk; “The conceptions acquired by thirty remain usually the only ones we ever gain” (p. 82). This is a depressing sentiment for adult learners hoping to continue their education and further their understanding beyond the traditional college years. Research on aging has shown that people can continue to experience cognitive growth as they age, even though some aspects (such as retrieval speed and reaction time) may decline. I would argue that we can carve out new conceptions, though it may be difficult to dig ourselves out of the ruts that we have dug ourselves into. If apperception does not in fact stop as we reach our thirties, how does it change?
The concept of apperception can be linked to James’ previous talk on memory. James likened memory to plowing channels of connections between different ideas. Similarly, apperception seeks to link new ideas with these preexisting channels. James notes that these categorical ruts that we dig ourselves into (what James refers to as old-fogyism) become prevalent as early as age twenty-five (p. 79). This is due in part to the fact that we have built up enough experience with a given thought process that it becomes second nature to retrieve it in this way. This idea can be linked to the ways in which cognition changes over time. While adults typically have slower reaction times than children, they can make up for this speed in areas where they are knowledgeable, because they are so familiar with the pathways used to retrieve that knowledge. Apperception is also similar to stereotyping. While stereotyping is often thought of and discussed in the negative sense (such as gender and race stereotypes), in its broadest sense, stereotyping is simply an expedited manner of categorizing things. The brain places people and ideas into categories, and people become more apt to make snap judgments based upon previous experiences with the same situation.
James makes a rather disturbing point towards the end of his talk; “The conceptions acquired by thirty remain usually the only ones we ever gain” (p. 82). This is a depressing sentiment for adult learners hoping to continue their education and further their understanding beyond the traditional college years. Research on aging has shown that people can continue to experience cognitive growth as they age, even though some aspects (such as retrieval speed and reaction time) may decline. I would argue that we can carve out new conceptions, though it may be difficult to dig ourselves out of the ruts that we have dug ourselves into. If apperception does not in fact stop as we reach our thirties, how does it change?
The Acquisition of Ideas
In this talk, James is again promoting the authentic experience as the main way in which growing individuals obtain knowledge and ideas about the world around them. James is promoting ‘street smarts’ over ‘book smarts’ in the sense that knowledge is only as good as it is able to be applied in a real and meaningful way. This also aligns well with James’ vision of education as a practical tool.
In one section of his talk, James notes the importance of personal interest in knowledge acquisition; “feed the growing human being, feed him with the sort of experience for which from year to year, he shows a natural craving, and he will develop in adult life a sounder sort of mental tissue, even though hey may seem to be ‘wasting’ a great deal of his growing time, in the eyes of those for whom the only channels of learning are books and verbally communicated information” (p. 73). Reading this talk and this quote in particular reminded me of the concept of ‘unschooling,’ a less traditional method of education where the student directs his or her learning based upon their interests at the time. Unschooling is similar to the Montessori method in its self-directed learning; however, it is much less structured, with the learning goals established and directed entirely by the student. Like James’ notion of education, unschooling encourages the student to learn through their own experiences in various domains rather than relying upon formal lessons and work in the classroom. This approach to education makes learning personally meaningful, as it is driven by the needs and desires of the student.
James calls for teachers to have the student explain concepts in his or her own words, as well as presenting the information in many different ways so as to not have the student merely memorize the answer without understanding it. Without being able to come to understanding in terms of their own experiences, the student will not be able to explain the concept as they see it. This leaves the teacher wondering if the student truly understands the concept or if they are simply able to parrot back the answer. But could there be circumstances where full understanding of a concept is not necessary for learning, at least in the early stages?
In one section of his talk, James notes the importance of personal interest in knowledge acquisition; “feed the growing human being, feed him with the sort of experience for which from year to year, he shows a natural craving, and he will develop in adult life a sounder sort of mental tissue, even though hey may seem to be ‘wasting’ a great deal of his growing time, in the eyes of those for whom the only channels of learning are books and verbally communicated information” (p. 73). Reading this talk and this quote in particular reminded me of the concept of ‘unschooling,’ a less traditional method of education where the student directs his or her learning based upon their interests at the time. Unschooling is similar to the Montessori method in its self-directed learning; however, it is much less structured, with the learning goals established and directed entirely by the student. Like James’ notion of education, unschooling encourages the student to learn through their own experiences in various domains rather than relying upon formal lessons and work in the classroom. This approach to education makes learning personally meaningful, as it is driven by the needs and desires of the student.
James calls for teachers to have the student explain concepts in his or her own words, as well as presenting the information in many different ways so as to not have the student merely memorize the answer without understanding it. Without being able to come to understanding in terms of their own experiences, the student will not be able to explain the concept as they see it. This leaves the teacher wondering if the student truly understands the concept or if they are simply able to parrot back the answer. But could there be circumstances where full understanding of a concept is not necessary for learning, at least in the early stages?
Monday, October 24, 2011
Memory
James conceives of memory as a command to call upon the various associations and reactions that we have stored in our brain. “Paths frequently and recently ploughed are those that lie most open, those which may be expected most easily to lead to results” (p. 59). Put simply – use it or lose it. By consistently recalling on information that is needed, you reinforce those memories and knowledge. For example, learning a foreign language and retaining it requires constant practice and use of that foreign language. Without it, that information becomes harder and harder to access over time, and is overtaken by more relevant information that is called upon more frequently.
In terms of aiding students with their memory, James calls for teachers to “impress the class through as many sensible channels as he can” (p. 68). This is referring to the various types of learning styles – the visual, the auditory, and the kinesthetic. Learning in these variety of ways not only appeals to the learner, but gives them a variety of opportunities and modes through which they can experience the material and make meaning of it. While one method may make the greatest impression on them, learning about it in a different way helps to widen those “ploughed paths” through which they can access that information at a later time. Going back to the foreign language example, using vocabulary through reading, speaking with others, and watching foreign language television immerses the student in the language in different ways and gives them different experiences to draw upon as part of their knowledge base.
James contends that memory cannot be improved overall, stating that “there can be no improvement of the general or elementary faculty of memory: there can only be improvement of our memory for special systems of associated things” (p. 61). I am inclined to disagree with James on this point. In essence, James is proposing that memory in one context does not impact memory in another context; however, wouldn’t exercising one’s memory by using different methods to improve associations impact one’s ability to use these same exercises in other contexts?
In terms of aiding students with their memory, James calls for teachers to “impress the class through as many sensible channels as he can” (p. 68). This is referring to the various types of learning styles – the visual, the auditory, and the kinesthetic. Learning in these variety of ways not only appeals to the learner, but gives them a variety of opportunities and modes through which they can experience the material and make meaning of it. While one method may make the greatest impression on them, learning about it in a different way helps to widen those “ploughed paths” through which they can access that information at a later time. Going back to the foreign language example, using vocabulary through reading, speaking with others, and watching foreign language television immerses the student in the language in different ways and gives them different experiences to draw upon as part of their knowledge base.
James contends that memory cannot be improved overall, stating that “there can be no improvement of the general or elementary faculty of memory: there can only be improvement of our memory for special systems of associated things” (p. 61). I am inclined to disagree with James on this point. In essence, James is proposing that memory in one context does not impact memory in another context; however, wouldn’t exercising one’s memory by using different methods to improve associations impact one’s ability to use these same exercises in other contexts?
Sunday, October 23, 2011
Attention
In a society where people are becoming increasingly aware of attention disorders in relation to student learning, this chapter is particularly relevant to education in modern times. Educators must be aware of the different ways in which students focus their attention and attend to a given task. James notes that attention can be passive or active, is often willed by the individual, and will at times need to be intentionally refocused. I would also add that the way attention is used is highly individualized. For me, it is hard to focus on many things at once. I am not very good at multitasking simultaneously. Instead, chunking my time to devote 100 percent of my attention to a given task is what works best for me. On the other hand, some individuals can go almost seamlessly from one task to the next and back again. What accounts for these differences?
James talks about attention as it relates to the idea of genius, and makes connections to the idea of genius and creativity. To keep attention, James notes; “the subject must be made to show new aspects of itself; to prompt new questions; in a word, to change” (p. 52). James likens this to a genius constantly revisiting an idea from different perspectives, trying to understand the same thing in multiple ways. In this sense, attention and interest come from within and must be prompted by the individual. Teachers can make the subject matter relevant by connecting it to the student’s individual experience, but ultimately it is up to the student to focus in on that information and acquire it.
Towards the end of his talk, James notes that some individuals are able to “sink into a subject of meditation deeply” and that this is “probably a fixed characteristic of the individual” (p. 57). I am inclined to disagree with James on this matter. While certainly some individuals may come by this ability naturally, I do think that this type of attention can be learned. The best example that I can think of is mindfulness or meditation. With practice, most any individual can learn how to focus on something, whether it be a word or idea, or simply their breathing, for longer and longer periods of time. I think that attention, like other skills, is a habit that can be acquired to a certain extent. Perhaps we should focus not only on connecting material to the individual’s interest, but also helping them to develop a habit of mindfulness that allows them to better focus their attention on new and unrelated material. But in a culture where we do not often encourage mindfulness, is this even practical?
James talks about attention as it relates to the idea of genius, and makes connections to the idea of genius and creativity. To keep attention, James notes; “the subject must be made to show new aspects of itself; to prompt new questions; in a word, to change” (p. 52). James likens this to a genius constantly revisiting an idea from different perspectives, trying to understand the same thing in multiple ways. In this sense, attention and interest come from within and must be prompted by the individual. Teachers can make the subject matter relevant by connecting it to the student’s individual experience, but ultimately it is up to the student to focus in on that information and acquire it.
Towards the end of his talk, James notes that some individuals are able to “sink into a subject of meditation deeply” and that this is “probably a fixed characteristic of the individual” (p. 57). I am inclined to disagree with James on this matter. While certainly some individuals may come by this ability naturally, I do think that this type of attention can be learned. The best example that I can think of is mindfulness or meditation. With practice, most any individual can learn how to focus on something, whether it be a word or idea, or simply their breathing, for longer and longer periods of time. I think that attention, like other skills, is a habit that can be acquired to a certain extent. Perhaps we should focus not only on connecting material to the individual’s interest, but also helping them to develop a habit of mindfulness that allows them to better focus their attention on new and unrelated material. But in a culture where we do not often encourage mindfulness, is this even practical?
Interest
Interest is the key to further learning. For James, additional learning can only occur if the student’s interest is captured. He sees this as occurring through connecting ideas to the student’s native interest. “The teacher must know which the natively interesting ones are; for, as we shall see immediately, other objects can artificially acquire an interest only through first becoming associated with some of these natively interesting things” (p. 46). Again, James is calling for the teacher to make connections with the student’s interest, helping them to make connections between new materials and their previous knowledge and interests. “Any object not interesting in itself may become interesting through becoming associated with an object in which an interest already exists” (p. 47).
The objective is to build a series of interrelated concepts that are personally meaningful to the student. To James, this ability to help students make the connections is the mark of the good teacher. In talking about interest, James brings up the idea of ownership in terms of a student possessing his or her school materials versus merely borrowing them. This idea can also be translated to the idea of making knowledge one’s own, through personal connections with the material and incorporating the knowledge into one’s identity. If you think of one’s interests in terms of likes or hobbies, this concept of ownership becomes obvious. Those who take an interest in something will often have artifacts indicating their interest (book collections, musical instruments, etc.) and have stories and memories relating to those interest that are incorporated into their personal identity. So too does a student of any subject make personal meaning of the information that they obtain by taking part in activities that incorporate that knowledge into their experiences.
James notes that connecting ideas to that which the student already is familiar with is a good way to generate interest. I think that this could at times require much creativity on behalf of the teacher to help make those connections. Some links are obvious, but others may be harder to find. How do you help each student make a unique connection? In some ways, this problem is similar to that presented in the association of ideas. Given the individualistic nature of each student’s experience, how do you spark their interest while not losing the interest of the rest of the class?
The objective is to build a series of interrelated concepts that are personally meaningful to the student. To James, this ability to help students make the connections is the mark of the good teacher. In talking about interest, James brings up the idea of ownership in terms of a student possessing his or her school materials versus merely borrowing them. This idea can also be translated to the idea of making knowledge one’s own, through personal connections with the material and incorporating the knowledge into one’s identity. If you think of one’s interests in terms of likes or hobbies, this concept of ownership becomes obvious. Those who take an interest in something will often have artifacts indicating their interest (book collections, musical instruments, etc.) and have stories and memories relating to those interest that are incorporated into their personal identity. So too does a student of any subject make personal meaning of the information that they obtain by taking part in activities that incorporate that knowledge into their experiences.
James notes that connecting ideas to that which the student already is familiar with is a good way to generate interest. I think that this could at times require much creativity on behalf of the teacher to help make those connections. Some links are obvious, but others may be harder to find. How do you help each student make a unique connection? In some ways, this problem is similar to that presented in the association of ideas. Given the individualistic nature of each student’s experience, how do you spark their interest while not losing the interest of the rest of the class?
The Association of Ideas
The association of ideas is closely related to James’ conception of streams of consciousness. Much in the same way that consciousness changes in waves, the string of ideas that we associate with one another are in a constant state of change. James defines two ways in which ideas are associated. The law of contiguity defines the association of ideas as a relation between ideas that are categorized together. The law of similarity finds connections between two seemingly unrelated objects.
James likens a more educated individual to an individual who has the most connections in their mind; “the more copious the associative systems, the completer the individual’s adaptations to the world” (p. 42). These concepts can be connected with learning in several ways. One of the first connections that immediately came to mind for me was creativity. The way in which we can associate ideas together can vary greatly, and creativity could be defined simply as connecting two ideas in new and different ways. Meaningful connections can also associate ideas through the use of mnemonics and other tools, which also draw from creativity in the way that they relate seemingly unrelated items together. James is tapping into the ways in which connections are used in the learning process.
The seemingly chaotic way in which each individual ties his or her thoughts together presents an interesting challenge to the teacher. If, as James notes, a word or statement can send an individual off in a variety of directions, how do we help students associate new ideas without having them wander off in their attention from the matter at hand? How do we anticipate these directions?
James likens a more educated individual to an individual who has the most connections in their mind; “the more copious the associative systems, the completer the individual’s adaptations to the world” (p. 42). These concepts can be connected with learning in several ways. One of the first connections that immediately came to mind for me was creativity. The way in which we can associate ideas together can vary greatly, and creativity could be defined simply as connecting two ideas in new and different ways. Meaningful connections can also associate ideas through the use of mnemonics and other tools, which also draw from creativity in the way that they relate seemingly unrelated items together. James is tapping into the ways in which connections are used in the learning process.
The seemingly chaotic way in which each individual ties his or her thoughts together presents an interesting challenge to the teacher. If, as James notes, a word or statement can send an individual off in a variety of directions, how do we help students associate new ideas without having them wander off in their attention from the matter at hand? How do we anticipate these directions?
The Laws of Habit
In this talk, James reviews the composition and development of habit. By creating an environment that encourages the habit, making your intentions known and acting on opportunities to exercise your habit, James contends, individuals will feel more committed to making these changes. In terms of teaching, James applies the concept of habit to the classroom by calling upon teachers to seize the opportunity to demonstrate a good habit in action and have their students participate in it to reinforce the desired behavior. Again, James emphasizes the behavioral components of education “Education is for behavior, and habits are the stuff of which behavior consists” (p. 34).
Another important component of developing habits is feeding the habit. Using the example of Darwin’s loss of interest in poetry, James notes; “if not persistently fed with the appropriate matter, instead of growing into a powerful and necessary habit, it atrophies and dies, choke by the rival interests to which the daily food is given” (p. 37). James argues that the habits we establish early on in life have an impact on how we approach things later in life. This can be applied in a number of ways, from one’s self-discipline in studying to one’s interest in becoming better at a particular subject. However, James does not completely discount the idea of acquiring new habits later in life.
As someone who has studied music in some form for most of her life, I can relate to James’ laws and atrophy of habit in terms of my practice of music. When I was younger and studied music more seriously, I practiced often and it became a given that I would practice the piano at least once a day. As other things began to crowd in on my time, I began to play the piano less and less, until, at the present, I only play sporadically. Like Darwin, I have at times experienced pangs of regret that I did not keep up with my piano playing on a daily basis – when I go to play now after taking some time away from it, it is harder for me to build up my speed and acuity in reading music.
While I think that James is encouraging teachers to instill specific habits in children that will assist them later in life, I think that his principles of developing habits are the more important message of this talk. Learning how to form the habit is half the battle, and possessing these skills allows the individual to modify their behavior at any time. While catching bad habits early and correcting them is easier, having the capability to recognize a bad or inefficient habit at any stage of life is beneficial. As James notes, the second most important part of habit formation is the intent to see it through and the dedication to work at it daily. We hear this message all the time in terms of learning a new language, losing weight, starting an exercise regimen, or any sort of lifestyle change that we desire to obtain.
Given the diverse needs of students and individual differences in development and interests, what is the best way for a teacher to instill habit formation in the classroom? How do we help students transfer the skills needed to establish habits in one domain to another?
Another important component of developing habits is feeding the habit. Using the example of Darwin’s loss of interest in poetry, James notes; “if not persistently fed with the appropriate matter, instead of growing into a powerful and necessary habit, it atrophies and dies, choke by the rival interests to which the daily food is given” (p. 37). James argues that the habits we establish early on in life have an impact on how we approach things later in life. This can be applied in a number of ways, from one’s self-discipline in studying to one’s interest in becoming better at a particular subject. However, James does not completely discount the idea of acquiring new habits later in life.
As someone who has studied music in some form for most of her life, I can relate to James’ laws and atrophy of habit in terms of my practice of music. When I was younger and studied music more seriously, I practiced often and it became a given that I would practice the piano at least once a day. As other things began to crowd in on my time, I began to play the piano less and less, until, at the present, I only play sporadically. Like Darwin, I have at times experienced pangs of regret that I did not keep up with my piano playing on a daily basis – when I go to play now after taking some time away from it, it is harder for me to build up my speed and acuity in reading music.
While I think that James is encouraging teachers to instill specific habits in children that will assist them later in life, I think that his principles of developing habits are the more important message of this talk. Learning how to form the habit is half the battle, and possessing these skills allows the individual to modify their behavior at any time. While catching bad habits early and correcting them is easier, having the capability to recognize a bad or inefficient habit at any stage of life is beneficial. As James notes, the second most important part of habit formation is the intent to see it through and the dedication to work at it daily. We hear this message all the time in terms of learning a new language, losing weight, starting an exercise regimen, or any sort of lifestyle change that we desire to obtain.
Given the diverse needs of students and individual differences in development and interests, what is the best way for a teacher to instill habit formation in the classroom? How do we help students transfer the skills needed to establish habits in one domain to another?
What the Native Reactions Are
In this talk, James defines each of the native reactions that are most relevant to teachers; fear, love, curiosity imitation, emulation, ambition, pugnacity, pride, ownership, and constructiveness. James also talks about the native genius of the teacher, “the sympathy, tact, and perception which enable him to seize the right moment and to set the right example” (p. 26). James is alluding to the fact that some people are in fact “born teachers,” those individuals who have that innate capability to reach out to and connect with their students and their native reactions and quickly adapt to a changing educational environment.
James notes that imitation and emulation are particularly important in the constructing of expected behaviors. With regard to teachers, this becomes and important way in which the teacher can convey knowledge to the student. Furthermore, James notes the connections between emulation and rivalry. James sees rivalry and competition as a good thing. James is doubtful of removing the element of competition with the self and with others from the classroom. “No runner running all alone on a race-track will find in his own will the power of stimulation which his rivalry with other runners incites, when he feels them at his heels, about to pass” (p. 27-28). But certainly there comes a point when this type of competition becomes unhealthy. What is the tipping point?
Of particular interest to me was the concept of constructiveness. Constructiveness has many similarities to interest. This is how the student learns about and makes meaning within the contest of the world around him. James encourages teachers to strike when the iron is hot with regard to student interest “crowd on the athletic opportunities, the mental arithmetic, the verse-learning, the drawing, the botany, or what not, the moment you have reason to think the hour is ripe. The hour may not last long, and while it continues you may safely let all the child’s other occupations take a second place” (p. 31). Here again, James is calling upon the teacher to use his or her best instincts in playing to the child’s interests. I agree with this to a certain extent, but I do think that there can be too much of a good thing. If a child is interested in a certain area, encourage that interest and provide them with activities to explore that interest, but do not do so to the point that they become bored, tired, or frustrated with it. This also ties into the idea of pugnacity – while I think it is important to teach students persistence and stick-to-itiveness, too much of this can turn a child off to a subject in the long-term. I think there is a balance to be had between pushing the child to persist and perhaps seeking out another interest for a while before revisiting the subject. While some teachers may possess the “native genius” that allows them to make this distinction intuitively, is this a skill that can be taught?
James notes that imitation and emulation are particularly important in the constructing of expected behaviors. With regard to teachers, this becomes and important way in which the teacher can convey knowledge to the student. Furthermore, James notes the connections between emulation and rivalry. James sees rivalry and competition as a good thing. James is doubtful of removing the element of competition with the self and with others from the classroom. “No runner running all alone on a race-track will find in his own will the power of stimulation which his rivalry with other runners incites, when he feels them at his heels, about to pass” (p. 27-28). But certainly there comes a point when this type of competition becomes unhealthy. What is the tipping point?
Of particular interest to me was the concept of constructiveness. Constructiveness has many similarities to interest. This is how the student learns about and makes meaning within the contest of the world around him. James encourages teachers to strike when the iron is hot with regard to student interest “crowd on the athletic opportunities, the mental arithmetic, the verse-learning, the drawing, the botany, or what not, the moment you have reason to think the hour is ripe. The hour may not last long, and while it continues you may safely let all the child’s other occupations take a second place” (p. 31). Here again, James is calling upon the teacher to use his or her best instincts in playing to the child’s interests. I agree with this to a certain extent, but I do think that there can be too much of a good thing. If a child is interested in a certain area, encourage that interest and provide them with activities to explore that interest, but do not do so to the point that they become bored, tired, or frustrated with it. This also ties into the idea of pugnacity – while I think it is important to teach students persistence and stick-to-itiveness, too much of this can turn a child off to a subject in the long-term. I think there is a balance to be had between pushing the child to persist and perhaps seeking out another interest for a while before revisiting the subject. While some teachers may possess the “native genius” that allows them to make this distinction intuitively, is this a skill that can be taught?
Native Reactions and Acquired Reactions
James defines the purpose of education as a means of obtaining numerous possible reactions that an individual can draw from (p. 20). These are further broken down into native and acquired reactions. Native actions are those that we are born with, and acquired actions are those that we come to be familiar with as we develop. “Every acquired reaction is, as a rule, either a complication grafted on a native reaction, or a substitute for a native reaction, which the same object originally tended to provoke” (p. 20).
The teacher’s role in this process is to become familiar with the student’s native reactions and help to modify them if necessary so that their behaviors are more consistent with those desired by society. While James uses the example of behavior, this concept can also be applied to knowledge and learning. As a student comes to learning, they have a preconceived set of notions or understandings about the world around them (native reactions). As new concepts are made available to the student, they are able to modify their understandings and apply them in new and different ways (acquired reactions). Whether modifying behavior or knowledge, the teacher is responsible for creating conflict in the individual such that they are presented with new and more efficient ways of obtaining the same result. This is very similar to Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation in learning. Effective teaching in this sense is to be able to engage in the students native reactions and, if need be, offer effective substitutions or modifications to make their reactions more effective. This infers that the instructor must have a firm understanding of the student’s individual interest and motives, as well as their personality and demeanor.
James’ lecture infers that acquired reactions imparted by the teacher are always superior to the native reaction and should be encouraged. However, what if the acquired reaction is in fact worse (or just as bad) as the native reaction? For example, if a student’s school was set up to reward the student for correct answers that could be achieved by simply memorizing and regurgitating the answers, without a need to demonstrate true understanding of the material. How difficult is it to “unlearn” that acquired learning behavior or further modify it?
The teacher’s role in this process is to become familiar with the student’s native reactions and help to modify them if necessary so that their behaviors are more consistent with those desired by society. While James uses the example of behavior, this concept can also be applied to knowledge and learning. As a student comes to learning, they have a preconceived set of notions or understandings about the world around them (native reactions). As new concepts are made available to the student, they are able to modify their understandings and apply them in new and different ways (acquired reactions). Whether modifying behavior or knowledge, the teacher is responsible for creating conflict in the individual such that they are presented with new and more efficient ways of obtaining the same result. This is very similar to Piaget’s concepts of assimilation and accommodation in learning. Effective teaching in this sense is to be able to engage in the students native reactions and, if need be, offer effective substitutions or modifications to make their reactions more effective. This infers that the instructor must have a firm understanding of the student’s individual interest and motives, as well as their personality and demeanor.
James’ lecture infers that acquired reactions imparted by the teacher are always superior to the native reaction and should be encouraged. However, what if the acquired reaction is in fact worse (or just as bad) as the native reaction? For example, if a student’s school was set up to reward the student for correct answers that could be achieved by simply memorizing and regurgitating the answers, without a need to demonstrate true understanding of the material. How difficult is it to “unlearn” that acquired learning behavior or further modify it?
The Necessity of Reactions
Building upon James’ previous conceptions of education as a practical tool, this next talk discusses the importance of reaction as a means of gauging student learning and understanding. According to James, reactions are the results of acting on the impressions, or pieces of information, that the student has been exposed to. More than rote memorization, James’ makes the point that action and reaction must convey mastery of the material in terms of applying it in the world. “Laboratory work and shop work engender a habit of observation, a knowledge of the difference between accuracy and vagueness, and an insight into nature’s complexity and into the inadequacy of all abstract verbal accounts of real phenomena, which, once wrought into the mind, remain there as lifelong possessions” (p. 18). This idea is very much in line with the concept of situated cognition and authentic activity described by Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989). Situated cognition refers to the practical application of knowledge in a way that demonstrates mastery of the material. In James’ view these types of experiences were best for learning because “they confer precision… if you are doing a thing, you must do it definitely right or definitely wrong” (p. 18). This type of immediate feedback helps the student to gauge their progress towards mastery.
This gets at the distinction between the student being able to tell you the correct answer and being able to tell you why that answer is correct. Memorization is a useful tool for some aspects of learning, but a deeper understanding is often necessary in order to apply what you have learned. The authentic activity is a good assessment for this. By taking the abstract knowledge and applying it in a relevant and practical situation, the student will need to demonstrate their understanding of what they have learned. These types of opportunities allow the teacher to assess the student’s level of understanding and provide additional clarification if need be. Moreover, these opportunities allow students to engage with the subject matter and behaviors associated with it, which provides them with the opportunity to make meaning on their terms. Instead of providing the student with the answer and having them understand it in an abstract sense, this type of learning by doing allows them to get further involved in the subject matter. This type of learning can be time consuming, however, and given the large amount of content that needs to be covered in a given school year, is this type of learning truly practical in today’s classroom?
References:
Brown, J., Collins, A., and Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 25, 5-11.
This gets at the distinction between the student being able to tell you the correct answer and being able to tell you why that answer is correct. Memorization is a useful tool for some aspects of learning, but a deeper understanding is often necessary in order to apply what you have learned. The authentic activity is a good assessment for this. By taking the abstract knowledge and applying it in a relevant and practical situation, the student will need to demonstrate their understanding of what they have learned. These types of opportunities allow the teacher to assess the student’s level of understanding and provide additional clarification if need be. Moreover, these opportunities allow students to engage with the subject matter and behaviors associated with it, which provides them with the opportunity to make meaning on their terms. Instead of providing the student with the answer and having them understand it in an abstract sense, this type of learning by doing allows them to get further involved in the subject matter. This type of learning can be time consuming, however, and given the large amount of content that needs to be covered in a given school year, is this type of learning truly practical in today’s classroom?
References:
Brown, J., Collins, A., and Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 25, 5-11.
Saturday, October 22, 2011
Education and behavior
James offers his definition of education as “the organization of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies to behavior” (p. 15). Education serves a larger cultural purpose, preparing individuals to be successful members of the society in which they are engaged. As we grow, the majors we select and the courses that we take socialize us in some way for the careers that we are preparing for and the knowledge and behaviors expected therein. This lecture builds on James’ previous two lectures, and presents education and teaching as a means harnessing our stream of consciousness and behaviors in such a way that we are able to make connections between the information we have absorbed and our everyday experiences. In this view, the educated individual is a sum of learned information and behaviors that can be applied in practical ways.
James notes the cultural differences in the purpose of education, which are informed by the different values and aspirations each society has for its inhabitants. What it means to be educated in one country and another might vary widely. Furthermore, what it means to be educated changes over time. In the early days of higher education in the United States, we were preparing theologians and gentleman scholars. In current times, higher education has taken on the responsibility of preparing individuals for careers while also serving as a place of transition from childhood to adulthood for traditionally aged college students. The behaviors expected of an educated individual have changed, and our educational system changes as well to meet the new demands and expectations. Is it education that is driving societal change, or is it society’s changing values that drive educational reform?
James notes the cultural differences in the purpose of education, which are informed by the different values and aspirations each society has for its inhabitants. What it means to be educated in one country and another might vary widely. Furthermore, what it means to be educated changes over time. In the early days of higher education in the United States, we were preparing theologians and gentleman scholars. In current times, higher education has taken on the responsibility of preparing individuals for careers while also serving as a place of transition from childhood to adulthood for traditionally aged college students. The behaviors expected of an educated individual have changed, and our educational system changes as well to meet the new demands and expectations. Is it education that is driving societal change, or is it society’s changing values that drive educational reform?
The child as behaving organism
“[Stream of consciousness] has two functions that are obvious: it leads to knowledge, and it leads to action” (p. 11). James sides with practicality; “No truth, however abstract, is ever perceived that will not probably at some time influenced our earthly action” (p. 13). Our thoughts and the information that we receive impact our actions. For teachers, this underscores the importance of using consciousness as a means of making connections between the material to be learned and how the student will apply it in his or her life. The teacher’s responsibility, in James’ view, is to help the student make these connections.
What is the ultimate purpose of education? Are we creating thinkers and philosophers or doers? James takes the evolutionary approach and makes the case that, even in our philosophizing, we are connecting our thoughts to the practical matters at hand. More specifically, education in James’ view is a process of enculturation, or “training the pupil to behavior” (p. 13). Education is a means by which the values, beliefs and concepts held important by the previous generation are passed on to the next. I am inclined to agree with James that this is in fact one of the important functions of education in our society. As James notes, beyond the subject matter that students are learning, they are picking up on social cues, appropriate behavior, and the customs of operating in the adult world, such as being able to sit still, wait one’s turn, and carry on conversation in ways that will make them productive members of society (as defined by the society itself). With regard to the subject matter itself, particularly as students get older, the practical side of learning is emphasized; ‘will this get me into the right college or prepare me for my career?’ seem to be the questions that underlie the purpose of learning. While I think that most educators would like to instill an intrinsically motivated lifetime love of learning for learning’s sake, most students and parents are looking for that practical application. The idealist in me would like to think that both are possible; perhaps we can give students the tools they need to be successful professionally and in society, while also instilling in them the desire to always want to learn more. But is this actually possible?
What is the ultimate purpose of education? Are we creating thinkers and philosophers or doers? James takes the evolutionary approach and makes the case that, even in our philosophizing, we are connecting our thoughts to the practical matters at hand. More specifically, education in James’ view is a process of enculturation, or “training the pupil to behavior” (p. 13). Education is a means by which the values, beliefs and concepts held important by the previous generation are passed on to the next. I am inclined to agree with James that this is in fact one of the important functions of education in our society. As James notes, beyond the subject matter that students are learning, they are picking up on social cues, appropriate behavior, and the customs of operating in the adult world, such as being able to sit still, wait one’s turn, and carry on conversation in ways that will make them productive members of society (as defined by the society itself). With regard to the subject matter itself, particularly as students get older, the practical side of learning is emphasized; ‘will this get me into the right college or prepare me for my career?’ seem to be the questions that underlie the purpose of learning. While I think that most educators would like to instill an intrinsically motivated lifetime love of learning for learning’s sake, most students and parents are looking for that practical application. The idealist in me would like to think that both are possible; perhaps we can give students the tools they need to be successful professionally and in society, while also instilling in them the desire to always want to learn more. But is this actually possible?
Thursday, October 20, 2011
The Stream of Consciousness
In his second talk, James discusses the concept of consciousness and how it applies to teaching. James describes the stream of consciousness as consisting of two parts, the focal object and the marginal object (p. 8). Human beings change the focus of their attention, seemingly unconsciously, to the most important matter of the moment. The most important matter becomes the focal object, and all others become marginal. These objects are in a constant state of flux. “In most of our concrete states of consciousness all these different classes of ingredients are found simultaneously present to some degree, though the relative proportion they bear to one another is very shifting” (p. 8).
Stream of consciousness is that constant internal dialogue in our heads. The thoughts that we have, whether they are related to the task at hand or not, are what make up this stream of consciousness. At times, we are very much in control of our thoughts, while other times it is difficult to focus on something for more than a few minutes at a time. As we mature, we get better at automatically bringing ourselves back to the most important focal object. I think that this has become an increasingly important problem to education in the age of technology and multitasking. Students and adults alike are so used to having to devote their attention to many “stimuli” at once that our stream of consciousness is often disjointed and transitioning back and forth between several focal objects at once.
The student’s focus comes and goes in waves; making teachers aware of this fact can help them to devise ways to keep the students on task. In later chapters, James brings up the idea of connecting material as a means of helping with memory as well as increasing the meaningfulness of the learning experience. For educators, the stream of consciousness presents a unique challenge. How can teachers tap into student’s stream of consciousness and help them to maintain focus on their learning? What is the best way to address the changing waves of focus and marginal objects in the learning process?
Stream of consciousness is that constant internal dialogue in our heads. The thoughts that we have, whether they are related to the task at hand or not, are what make up this stream of consciousness. At times, we are very much in control of our thoughts, while other times it is difficult to focus on something for more than a few minutes at a time. As we mature, we get better at automatically bringing ourselves back to the most important focal object. I think that this has become an increasingly important problem to education in the age of technology and multitasking. Students and adults alike are so used to having to devote their attention to many “stimuli” at once that our stream of consciousness is often disjointed and transitioning back and forth between several focal objects at once.
The student’s focus comes and goes in waves; making teachers aware of this fact can help them to devise ways to keep the students on task. In later chapters, James brings up the idea of connecting material as a means of helping with memory as well as increasing the meaningfulness of the learning experience. For educators, the stream of consciousness presents a unique challenge. How can teachers tap into student’s stream of consciousness and help them to maintain focus on their learning? What is the best way to address the changing waves of focus and marginal objects in the learning process?
Tuesday, October 18, 2011
Psychology and the Teaching Art
Art versus science. These two areas, often described in opposition to one another, are discussed in relation to education in James’ first chapter. In this first talk, James makes the point that psychology and research have a role to play in education, but not at the expense of the teacher’s “art." Psychology and psychological research can be useful to the teacher in situating his or her observations and informing their practice, but James cautions against research in the classroom coming at the expense of their passion for teaching. This gets at the delicate balance between art and science that plays out when you pair education and research. James sees the role of psychology in the classroom as providing another lens through which the student can be examined; “such complete knowledge as this of the pupil, at once intuitive and analytic, is surely the knowledge at which every teacher ought to aim” (p. 5). The intuitive knowledge is the art, and the analytical knowledge is the science. One is not necessarily better than the other, but each can be used to strengthen the perspective gained by the other.
Much of the tension that existed between the balance of research and teaching still exists today. Teachers are overloaded today, just as they were in James’ time, and likely have little time to read about recent research, much less conduct research in their classrooms. James sees the psychology researcher as providing a service to the education profession. This is a call for the teachers to focus on teaching and the researchers to focus on research that will serve the teacher. Some have made the argument that educational psychology research has lost its connections to education and the teachers and schools that it hoped to assist (Anderman, 2011; Patrick, Anderman, Bruening, and Duffin, 2011). James’ charge to educational psychologists is to make the science more applicable to the art. Researchers need to make their research accessible and relevant, while not interfering with the teacher’s process. So what is the right balance of science and the art? How do you implement the scientific/analytical component without losing the intuitiveness and creativity of the teaching process that can play a large part in effective education?
References:
Anderman, E.M. (2011). Educational psychology in the twenty-first century: Challenges for our community. Educational psychologist, 46(3), 185-196.
Patrick, H., Anderman, L.H., Bruening, P.S., and Duffin, L.C. (2011). The role of educational psychology in teacher education: Three challenges for educational psychologists. Educational Psychologist, 46(2), 71-83.
Much of the tension that existed between the balance of research and teaching still exists today. Teachers are overloaded today, just as they were in James’ time, and likely have little time to read about recent research, much less conduct research in their classrooms. James sees the psychology researcher as providing a service to the education profession. This is a call for the teachers to focus on teaching and the researchers to focus on research that will serve the teacher. Some have made the argument that educational psychology research has lost its connections to education and the teachers and schools that it hoped to assist (Anderman, 2011; Patrick, Anderman, Bruening, and Duffin, 2011). James’ charge to educational psychologists is to make the science more applicable to the art. Researchers need to make their research accessible and relevant, while not interfering with the teacher’s process. So what is the right balance of science and the art? How do you implement the scientific/analytical component without losing the intuitiveness and creativity of the teaching process that can play a large part in effective education?
References:
Anderman, E.M. (2011). Educational psychology in the twenty-first century: Challenges for our community. Educational psychologist, 46(3), 185-196.
Patrick, H., Anderman, L.H., Bruening, P.S., and Duffin, L.C. (2011). The role of educational psychology in teacher education: Three challenges for educational psychologists. Educational Psychologist, 46(2), 71-83.
About me
Hello, fellow classmates! My name is Amanda Butz and I am a first-year doctoral student in the Educational Psychology program. My research interests are in the area of academic motivation and college student success. Mainly, I’m interested in how to help students make a more successful transition to college and persist once they get there. I took this class because I am interested in what drives people to learn and pursue education in all its forms. I am originally from Florida, but moved to Kentucky a little over two years ago with my husband and our two cats. Outside of school, I enjoy cooking (especially baking bread), reading, and dabbling in music.
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